THE PRACTICE: Professional development should be primarily school-based and built into the day-to-day work of teaching.
Content Presented By:
National Partnership for Excellence & Accountability in Teaching

Research summary

Professional development should be primarily school-based and integral to school operations (Burch, 1996; CPRE, 1995; Feiman-Nemser, 1983; Grossman, 1992; Guskey, 1995; Little, 1993; Little & McLaughlin, 1993; Joyce & Showers, 1995; Louis, Marks, & Kruse, 1996; NFIE, 1996; NGA; NSDC, 1995; Smylie, 1995; U.S. Department of Education, 1995). This does not mean denying teachers access to out-of-school learning experiences through professional associations or networks, graduate study, or teacher centers. However, opportunities to learn in powerful ways are most often connected with the recognition of and solution of authentic and immediate problems. For example, Hodges (1996) describes a large-scale staff development program conducted by Joyce and Showers (1995) in which cohesiveness, transfer of training, and the resulting effect on student learning were--and continue to be--a direct function of the study teams teachers formed to establish norms of mutual support and inquiry into the learning process (p. 229).

Motivation to learn and to engage in school change efforts also increases when these efforts are linked to improving and assessing daily practice. This is often referred to as "job-embedded" learning. As Lucks-Horsley (1995) claimed: This direct connection between learning and application increases meaning for the teacher and potential impact on students (p. 268). Smylie (1995) describes the optimal workplace is one in which learning arises from and feeds back into work experience, where learning is considered to be part of work.

Commenting on the mounting evidence about the efficacy of site-generated and supported innovations, Pink (1992) argues for investment in school-level capacity building. One necessary investment is time. According to the National Foundation for the Improvement of Education (1996), teachers need a significant amount of instruction with follow-up days of technical assistance to develop new pedagogical skills. Such time can be built into the school day through flexible and creative scheduling or by extending the school year. The American Federation of Teachers (1995) urges that teachers have time during the workday for their professional growth.

References

American Federation of Teachers. (1995). Principles for professional development. Washington, DC. Author.

Burch, Barbara (1996, September). Master's degrees for teachers: A call for change. AACTE Briefs, 17 (11). Washington, DC: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.

Consortium for Policy Research in Education. (1995, June). Helping teachers teach well: Transforming professional development. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University.

Feiman-Nemser, S. (1983) Learning to teacher. In L. S. Shulman & G. Sykes (Eds.), Handbook of teaching and policy (pp. 150-170). New York: Longman.

Grossman, P. L. (1992). Teaching to learn. In A. Lieberman (Ed.), The changing contexts of teaching. 91st Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, (pp. 179-196). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Guskey, T. R. (1995). Professional development in education: In search of the optimal mix. In T. R. Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional development in education: New paradigms & practices (pp. 114-132). NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Hodges, H. L. B. (1996). Using research to inform practice in urban school: 10 key strategies for success. Educational Policy, 10 (2), 223-252.

Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (1995). Student achievement through staff development: Fundamentals of school renewal (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Little, J. W. (1993). Teachers professional development in a climate of educational reform. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15 (2), 129-151.

Little, J. W., & McLaughlin, M.W. (Eds.). (1993). Teachers work: Individuals, colleagues, and contexts. New York: Teachers College Press.

Loucks-Horsley, S. (1995). New paradigms in professional development: International perspectives. AERA Symposium. San Francisco.

Loucks-Horsley, S. (1995). Professional development and the learner centered school. Theory into Practice, 34 (4), 265-271.

Louis, K. S., Marks, H. M., & Kruse, S. (1996). Teachers' professional community in restructuring schools. American Educational Research Journal, 33 (4), 757-798.

National Foundation for the Improvement of Education. (1996). Teachers take charge of their learning: Transforming professional development for student success. Washington, DC.

National Governors Association. Professional development for educators: A priority for reaching high standards. Washington, DC: Author.

National Staff Development Council. (1995). Standards for staff development. Oxford, OH: Author.

Pink, W. T. (1992) A school-within-a-school for at-risk youth: Staff development and program success. In W. T. Pink & A. A. Hyde (Eds.) Effective staff development for school change (pp. 33-63). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corp.

Smylie, M. A. (1995). Teacher learning in the workplace: Implications for school reform. In T. R. Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional development in education: New paradigms & practices (pp. 92-113). NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.

U.S. Department of Education (1995). Building bridges: The mission and principles of professional development. Washington, DC: Author.

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